They were peoples who dominated most of the Americas before the arrival of Europeans to the continent, in the 16th century. The Mayan civilization was the first to consolidate itself as an empire, reaching its peak at the end of the 9th century – a time when the Mayan territory extended from southern Mexico to Guatemala. Archaeologists speculate that wars or the depletion of arable lands led civilization to a rapid decline from the year 900. In the early 16th century, when the Spaniards explored America, the Mayans were found to be simple farmers who only practiced the religious rituals of their ancestors. . The Aztecs were at their peak during this period. Their civilization arose further north from Mexico. While their Mayan “neighbors” fell into decline, the Aztecs began to rise around the 12th century. Forming alliances with neighboring states, they built a large empire that was still expanding when contact with the Spaniards occurred in 1519. For years, invaders from the Old World dominated the most important Aztec center: Tenochtitlán, present-day Mexico City. It was another pre-Columbian empire coming to an end. In South America, the Incas would live a similar story. Until the 14th century, they were just another indigenous tribe scattered across the Andes mountain range. But from the 15th century they expanded, attacking neighboring villages. When the Spaniards arrived, the Incas already dominated a large area from northern Ecuador to central Chile. Epidemics and struggles for imperial succession left civilization weakened to face European conquerors. As a result, as they did with the Aztecs, the Spaniards quickly defeated the Inca empire. It took only three years, from 1532 to 1535.
In Search of the Maya – Robert L. Brunhouse, Ballantine Books, 1990
The Daily Life of the Aztecs – Jacques Soustelle, Weldenfeld & Nicolson Ltd., 1970
On the Internet:
https://incas.perucultural.org.pe/
Language – The language was Quechua, spoken throughout the territory in various dialects. Other peoples conquered by the Incas could keep their original language, as long as they spoke Quechua as their main language. Today, nearly half of Peru’s population still uses the language.
Writing – They did not develop writing skills. But they created a complex system for numbers in the form of knots distributed on a string. Only specially trained people understood this count, the meaning of which has not been fully deciphered to this day.
Population – It was the largest of the three empires in number of subjects: 12 million people. Territorial conquests in the Andes and along the Pacific coast began in the early 15th century. One hundred years later, the population under Inca rule would reach its peak
Cities – At the time of the arrival of the Spaniards, in 1532, it is estimated that Cuzco, the capital of the empire, had about 40 thousand inhabitants. Another very famous Inca city, Machu Picchu, was much smaller, housing around a thousand people.
Society – It was a very stratified civilization, in which it was almost impossible to change social class. Supreme power belonged to the emperor, who was assisted by a hereditary aristocracy. It exercised authority with rigor and often bloody measures.
Military power – His armies, of peasants recruited for military campaigns, were very numerous. Their main weapons were wooden spears with several stone tips and slingshots (made with llama wool) to throw stones.
Science and technology – They had advanced astronomical knowledge and were able to apply concepts of mathematics and geometry in their constructions. Despite this, the construction technology of the Incas was relatively simple, making particular use of stone artifacts.
Great Achievements – Built an incredible complex of roads connecting the entire empire. The system had two main routes running north-south: one, about 3,600 km long, ran along the Pacific coast and the other, almost as long, ran through the Andes.
Mayans
Language – There was no single main language. The current descendants of the Maya, for example, can be divided into six main groups, who speak dialects sometimes very similar, but in other cases with great variations.
Writing – The walls of their temples and palaces are covered with hieroglyphic inscriptions. The texts, largely deciphered, mainly recorded the stories of the Mayan dynasties, their wars against rival cities and the sacrifice of enemies to please the gods.
Population – Numbers from the time of the Spanish conquest are unreliable. But, despite the fact that civilization was almost decimated, there are still around 4 million descendants of the Maya in Central America today — which gives an idea of the size of its population
Cities – Maya cities—some with up to 50,000 inhabitants—were often independent, but could lead federations that encompassed large territories. Palaces and temples were made of stone, while the common people lived in wooden huts.
Society – Until the mid-20th century, archaeologists thought that Mayan society was at the top of a class of peaceful stargazing priests, maintained by pious peasants. Today it is known that this society was frequently agitated by wars between cities
Military Might – Their military strength resided in the size of the armies that could be raised. Armaments, however, were more limited: primitively designed bows and arrows, wooden spears and shields, and even stones that could be thrown with the hands.
Science and technology – They made advanced mathematical calculations and astronomical observations. They had a 260-day calendar (determined by complex star movements) and already understood the concept of the number zero — which would only later be well understood by Europeans
Great Achievements – Produced architectural works as great as Egyptians, Greeks and Romans. The city of Teotihuacán, for example, had a monumental complex of 600 pyramids. At Tikal, there was a temple 70 meters high, the largest building erected in ancient America
Aztecs
Language – They spoke Nahuatl, which is part of a large group of indigenous languages — including those of tribes in the American Old West. The Aztecs could be called Mexica, something like “lake of the Moon” — the mythical name of a lake in the region
Writing – They used signs known as pictographs or pictograms, with figures of snakes, human beings and other elements of nature, forming a variety of writing. Some of the pictographs symbolized ideas; others represented syllable sounds
Population – In 1519, the estimated population of the Aztec empire was 5 to 6 million people, spread across hundreds of small states/cities. The Aztecs expanded from the north to the south of Central America, conquering other civilizations, such as the Toltecs.
Cities – At its peak, Tenochtitlán (now Mexico City) had over 140,000 inhabitants! It was the greatest city of the ancient civilizations of America. The temples were made of stone and aligned with the stars. The people lived in huts made of wood with dried mud.
Society – Power belonged to the military sector of society. Priests and bureaucrats administered the empire, while the lower classes were made up of serfs, servants and slaves. Demonstrating bravery in war was the main form of social ascension in Aztec culture.
Military power – Peasants could be called up at any time to join the Aztec armies, who preferred to hurt rather than kill their enemies – obtaining prisoners to use in sacrifices. Spears, clubs and round wooden shields were the main equipment
Science and technology – They had a calendar that accurately calculated the solar year (with 365 days) and used a different counting system based on the number 20. Aztec doctors could fix broken bones and fill teeth
Great Achievements – They developed impeccable urban planning. His public works included miles of roads and aqueducts. The capital Tenochtitlán was built on a marshy area, carefully drained and filled in to support around 100 pyramids and towers.